Attention all Tolkien language geeks, my friend, Patrick Wynne, sings “A Elbereth Gilthoniel” (by J.R.R.Tolkien) to the tune of “O Tannenbaum.” Brilliant.

(if you have trouble viewing the video, refresh your browser)

Lyrics:

A Elbereth Gilthoniel,
O Elbereth Starkindler,
silivren penna míriel
white-glittering, slants down sparkling like jewels,
o menel aglar elenath!
from the firmament the glory of the starry host!
Na-chaered palan-díriel
Having gazed far away
o galadhremmin ennorath,
from the tree-woven lands of Middle-earth,
Fanuilos, le linnathon
to thee, Everwhite, I will sing,
nef aear, sí nef aearon!
on this side of the Sea, here on this side of the Great Ocean!

Special thanks to Pat for letting me post this here!

Many thanks to Jim Eisenbraun (and Gina Hannah) for sending me a copy of Eisenbruans‘ A Manual of Ugaritic (by Pierre Bordreuil and Dennis Pardee) to review.

Anyone who teaches or studies Ugaritic will want to take a serious look at adding this book to his or her collection of resources. I had high hopes for this book and I was not disappointed.

The manual was first published as Manuel d’Ougaritique in 2004 (by Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner S. A.). This 2009 edition not only provides an English translation, but also incorporates corrections, modifications (of some grammatical presentations and also some text interpretations), and updates to the bibliography. The authors note in the preface that the “most important of the modifications is in the presentation of the verbal system particular to poetry.”

The hardcover book is 355 pages and contains three parts: A grammar (82 pages), a selection of texts, and a glossary (165 pages). The book includes a CD. After using the material for a while, I think I would promote this as a CD accompanied by a hardcopy book! The CD has the entire book in PDF format, full-color photos of all the texts in the book and hand-copies of all the texts. The PDFs are hyperlinked so that it is easy to move from text, to hand-drawn plate, to color photograph very easily. I quickly found myself preferring the electronic version. I am able to easily search the contents to find specific information, can print out pages for marking up translation practice, and can enlarge the photographs up to 600% before losing definition. Some of the texts can be found online at Inscriptifact in better resolution, but the ease of access and the hyperlinked connections to the other material in the book make the digital material of this manual hard to beat.

The first part of the book begins with an introduction (20 pages) to the history and culture of Ugarit and the discovery of the cuneiform tablets. Topics in this section include: geography, decipherment of the alphabetic cuneiform writing system, languages in use at Ugarit, archives of Ugarit, history of the kingdom, descriptions of texts found at Ras Shamra, and an overview of the Ugaritic language.

The grammar section of the book is organized into 8 categories:

• Writing System
• Phonology
• Morphology
• Derivational Processes
• Compounding
• Syntax
• Vocabulary/Lexicon
• Particularities of Poetic Texts

Features of the grammar are illustrated with numerous examples (often from the texts presented later in the manual). This is not a typical language “textbook” per se, in that it does not have lessons or explicit exercises. Nevertheless, it would make a fine text for a Ugaritic course.

The brevity of grammar presentation is consistent with the intent that this manual is a rudimentary introduction and not meant to be a comprehensive reference of Ugaritic grammar. The authors suggest that those who desire to become more proficient should expand their knowledge in three principal ways:

1. immerse themselves in the study of the Ugaritic texts;
2. consult a wide variety of secondary sources, some of which are indicated in the list of works cited;
3. learn at least one other Semitic language, preferably a language for which the (or a) vocalization is known, such as Arabic, Aramaic, or Hebrew.

This, of course, is the best way to develop skill and proficiency in any ancient language. Namely, by reading as many texts as possible in that language.

One great strength of this book is the diversity of literary genre for the texts selected for inclusion: Mythological Texts, Ritual Texts, Incantations, “Scientific” Texts, Letters, Legal Texts, Administrative Texts, and Abecedaries. A total of 55 texts are presented. All but the abecedaries have a transcription of the cuneiform signs into Roman characters, an English translation, a vocalized text, and notes (which explain epigraphic difficulties, and aid the reader in the analysis of a word, a formula, or a text). Each of the 55 texts appears in the textbook as a hand drawn facsimile of the tablet and on the CD in both the hand-drawn form and as a color photograph. The photographs for the book are all new (with one exception) and greatly add to the pedagogical value of the book. In fact, the ability to reference the photographs and facsimiles of each text makes it more likely for students and teachers to incorporate learning and using the cuneiforms, rather than relying on transcriptions. This is a significant advantage that other Ugaritic manuals/grammars/textbooks are missing (e.g., Sivan’s A Grammar of the Ugaritic Language).

The glossary includes all attestations of each word in the selected texts (except for the conjunction w). The glossary is organized by root, but nominal forms, which begin with a consonant other than the initial consonant of the root, are given a cross-reference entry. The order utilized follows the sequence of the Ugaritic alphabet (as found in several abecedaries). I found the 165-page glossary easy to navigate and useful in the information included. Again, with the ability to search the PDF version, it was even quicker to find entries.

Thoughts
I’ve mentioned several times that I like having the hyperlinks in the PDF of this manual. However, I wish that the publishers had taken this opportunity to go one step further with the hyperlinks. This manual would be even more useful if all the attestations in the glossary had hyperlinks to the text (and from the word in the text to the glossary). This would allow a reader to quickly move not only from text to photograph/plate but also directly to the glossary and then to another attestation of the same word in another context.

The Introduction could have benefitted from maps and photographs of the archeological site. I know these materials are available elsewhere, but it would have been helpful (for a classroom, for instance) to have them accessible from the PDF version.

Not everyone will agree with all the decisions on describing the Ugaritic grammar. This is to be expected. However, Bordreuil and Pardee are well-qualified (and respected) in their field and anyone who is serious about studying Ugaritic would do well to give attention to their presentation. Even if you do not agree, you will surely need to understand their position in order to be part of the ongoing scholarly conversation.

I wonder how the PDF of this manual would work on an iPad or other eReader? I am very interested to see how publishers are moving forward to take advantage of new technologies. One additional benefit of having the PDF version, is that (if you have a full version of Acrobat, and not just the Reader) you can insert your own comments and notes into the text. Of course, you would have to do a “save as” onto your hard drive in order to save user comments and markup.

Eisenbrauns has taken a risk in providing the PDF of the entire manual on the CD. Pirating of such electronic versions of books is, unfortunately, becoming too common and threatens to force publishers to protect their products in ways that remove some of the benefits of the electronic versions. The Manual of Ugaritic is listed at $69.50 (but is currently for sale with a 10% discount at Eisenbrauns ) and I think it is a very reasonable cost for the resource (especially compared to some other Ugaritic resources). I encourage readers to honor this trust that the publisher has given its readers and not illegally share the document. I applaud Eisenbrauns for making the Ugaritic manual so useful by being generous in including the photographs, plates, and entire book in electronic hyptertexted format. Please take the time to report any misuse to the publisher. This is the only way we will be able to continue to receive such helpful resources.

Bottom line: Do you study Ugaritic? Buy the book!

If you need a bookmark for this text, you can download my Ugaritic Transliteration Bookmark!

I am very grateful to Allan Emery at Hendrickson Publishers for the opportunity to review Jo Ann Hackett’s soon-to-be released textbook, A Basic Introduction to Biblical Hebrew (with CD). He sent me PDF copies of the galleys so that I could write this review. I am also indebted to Prof. Hackett for her gracious answers to my emails that will add clarity to my review.

I am delighted that Hendrickson granted permission for me to post PDFs of both the Table of Contents and the author’s very helpful introduction, “How To Use This Book.” While I will quote some of this material below, I recommend reading both files because they give both the structure of the book and an explanation for how the book is intended to be used and the thought behind some of the novel pedagogy. The Table of Contents is very detailed and provides an excellent overview of the course plan.

PDF Files to view/download

• All Front Pages to A Basic Introduction to Biblical Hebrew by Jo Ann Hackett
• Table of Contents only
• Author’s Introduction only

Basics about the Book
Since I read the book in PDF format, I cannot comment to the type of paper the publisher has chosen. I do hope that it is appropriate for taking notes and highlighting. The page size is 7” x 9¼” and the book is listed as a hardcover text. I always wish for more white-space (especially in the margins), but this is often a decision based on a balance of many factors (e.g., total page count, cost, etc.). The overall layout is well-organized and helped by clear tables, charts, and info-boxes. The English font seems a little larger than the Hebrew font and I worry about the readability of the Hebrew vowel points but I will have to reserve that judgment for when I see the hardcopy. The textbook is comprised of approximately 330 pages including 64 pages of (helpful) appendices and a final section with suggestions for “Further Reading.” Each paragraph is clearly numbered with chapter, section, and subsection numbers. This makes it easy to refer students to a specific piece of information.

The book is accompanied by a CD, which I only have a description of because it was still in production. The CD will include audio files (recorded by Prof. Hackett) of the vocabulary lists, the Hebrew-to-English exercises for al chapters, major paradigms, and a reading of Genesis 22:1-9. The text files include vocabulary lists, printable copies of the Hebrew-to-English exercises, all the appendices and paradigms, and a complete answer key for both the English-to-Hebrew and Hebrew-to-English exercises.

The format follows a traditional BH grammar-translation approach (with some interesting adjustments to presentation order and terminology), but I would expect that teachers looking to incorporate alternative methodologies could still use this textbook by supplementing it with various resources and classroom presentation material. The textbook is divided into 30 lessons. Hackett intends the book to be used for a one-semester “introduction to the basics” course. This would be an ambitious pace for many classes to cover in one semester. However, the initial chapters ease the student into the study of the language with appropriate simplicity and gradually become more challenging. When I first looked at the initial chapters, I thought that the amount of practice was not enough, but it is easy to forget how overwhelming those first few classes can be for a new student. A good teacher could easily supplement this work if needed.

Pedagogical Choices of the Author
I am often asked “What do you think is the best Biblical Hebrew textbook?” This is a loaded question! I have said in other places (here) that there is no one “best” textbook. Rather, teachers must consider their students, the type of class, the goals for the class, and their own teaching style and skills in selecting a textbook.

Prof. Hackett writes an introduction to her book that gives a window into her approach and pedagogical preferences. This is one of the most helpful ways to see if you would benefit from choosing this book for your own class (or as a reference for yourself). Please take the time to read her own words. I merely list a few of the items that are typical “litmus test” criteria when judging textbooks:

• verbs in the vocabularies are presented in 3ms suffix conjugation
• verbal paradigms are listed in the order first-person, second-person, then third-person (to correspond with how the pronominal suffixes are learned)
• strong verb (in all its stems and forms) is presented first, then the weak verbs
• verb terminology: “prefix conjugation” (instead of “imperfect”), “suffix conjugation” (instead of “perfect”), və-qatal, and her novel addition “consecutive preterite” (see quote below explaining)
• order of verb presentation: prefix conjugation, volitives, consecutive preterite, suffix conjugation, və-qatal forms, infinitives, participles
• Masoretic accent marks (טְאָמִים ) of the HB are used to discover syntax

Prof. Hackett describes her thoughts on the verbal system terminology:

I have also deliberately not used the rubrics “perfect,” “imperfect,” or “converted,” because they carry with them either complete misinformation (“converted”) or old-fashioned methods of dealing with the Biblical Hebrew verbal system (“perfect” and “imperfect”). Luckily, the merely descriptive terms “prefix conjugation” and “suffix conjugation” are available (and were in fact the terms we used in the first Hebrew classes I took as a student). I have also been happy to see the term və-qatal applied to the form that is וְ plus suffix conjugation (often called “converted perfect”), and I have used it here.

The boldest innovation of this textbook is described by the author:

Several years ago, John Huehnergard and I together came up with the term “consecutive preterite” for the verb form that is usually called the “converted imperfect.” I hesitated to use a new name in this beginning textbook for such a common form, but our rubric fits so perfectly that I decided to introduce it here. It is the only time I have used a term that is otherwise not a part of the scholarly literature (p XX).

This may not be something a teacher would be willing to incorporate (i.e., a term that is not widely used by the community). However, I do see the benefit and since the textbook clearly includes references to alternate terminology, I think it is a helpful step.

My Comments about Specific Content
I appreciate that Hackett begins the book with a chapter putting the language in some linguistic, historical, and scribal context. This background information will help the student to place Biblical Hebrew into a larger picture of language and history.

The initial chapters that introduce the consonants and vowels (along with illustrations for writing them in Appendix A) are phenomenal. Most textbooks or courses expect the student to teach this to themselves from looking at a typeset list of characters. These initial lessons take the mystery out of a new writing system and ease a student into recognition and pronunciation. However, I was a little surprised by the author’s choices for referring to some of the vowel names. For example, she does not differentiate the long “a” and short “o,” calling them both qamets. While they share the same orthographic form, they are pronounced differently and I prefer to use qamets hatuf for the latter. She also refers to the irreducibly long vowel ִי as hireq-gadol, instead of hireq-yod (although she does use tsere-yod to refer to ֵי ). This is of minor concern, and I only point it out.

The author always footnotes or otherwise draws attention to forms that are attested, but differ from what might be expected. She also anticipates potential student confusion and includes additional information to clarify what might seem like conflicting information or rules.

There are a variety of types of questions in the exercises. Here is an example of a particularly interesting way to ask a question (from Ch. 6 Ex. B):

We saw above that מָלַ֫כְתִּי comes from the root מלך and means ‘I ruled’. Given the root שׁמר ‘to observe, guard, watch’, how would you write and pronounce ‘I observed’? We also saw above that תִּמְלֹךְ means ‘she will rule’. How would you write and pronounce ‘she will observe’?

Vocabulary words are presented (at the end of each chapter) by word class (e.g., verb, noun, pronoun, adjective) and often have more than just a short gloss. The plural and construct forms are listed right in the vocabulary list (instead of students having to flip back to an appendix to find this information). I think this helps to give the student a better semantic understanding for each vocabulary item and minimizes learning an incorrect semantic domain. For example, some textbooks only give a gloss of “light” for the word אוֹר but without some kind of word class indication, a student may randomly connote “the act of striking a match,” “the weight of an object,” or “an object that gives off illumination” with this word. Whenever more information is given, it is more likely a student will have a better understanding of the vocabulary.

I asked Prof. Hackett how she chose the words to include in the vocabulary for this textbook. She told me that she took all the words that occur 100 times and more and made large charts that showed when she had introduced the word, how many times she had used it and in which chapters. Her goal was to use each word once in every 4 or 5 lessons. As the textbook progresses, this becomes more difficult to do. I like this deliberate planning to highlight a vocabulary word to the student multiple times for reinforcement. Not all of the 100+ frequency vocabulary is included, the remaining would be included in the second book (see below). And, of course, there are some words like סוּס that are simply too perfect not to use, even though they don’t occur often.

I very much like her inclusion of the Masoretic accents (טְאָמִים) as a pedagogical tool for identifying syntax (I pointed out a resource for doing this very thing in a previous post). She acknowledges that some of the presentation is (of necessity) not according to strict “biblical rules” and may make those who know biblical accentuation well “cringe.” However, I agree that, for the level of the students, the benefit definitely warrants this creativity.

A second book is in preparation. It will consist of graded readings of biblical passages, with glosses where necessary, additional vocabulary, and references to this book when something basic might need to be reviewed.

Bottom Line: My Final Thoughts
I admire the clarity that Prof. Hackett uses in her writing. I can visualize a student reading the book and feeling like the teacher was right beside them explaining something. She clearly has taught many students and found the very best ways to explain complicated or confusing material. She is able to anticipate a student’s misconceptions and set them aright before they are ingrained. Her style of writing blends the necessary attention to scholarly detail with accessibility. Information in a textbook cannot become student knowledge without good communication; I believe Prof. Hackett definitely succeeds in this aspect. This type of writing is one of the textbook’s great strengths, and also makes the book a viable candidate for the self-learner.

The pace of this book would be very ambitious for most classes to complete in one term. I think it might be more likely that a teacher would spread at least part of this book into a second semester.

I like Appendix D Clues for Finding the Root of Weak Consecutive Preterites. There is a chart and a set of 14 “flow-chart” type questions that can help in the identification of these tricky roots.

Unfortunately, but like most BH textbooks, there are no illustrations. The appendices do make use of some color ink to highlight diagnostics for verb stems. I think that publishers should take up the challenge to revolutionize not only content, but also presentation of material. This goes hand in hand with adopting the new technologies available. I hope that with the development of eBooks and eReaders, textbooks will begin to expand beyond putting words in portable digital form and begin to link to additional resources online and incorporate various types of interactive pedagogical tools.

I have used, read, or reviewed many BH textbooks, but I have to say that this is one that I might actually choose to use in my own classroom. I look forward to seeing the finished product (including the audio files on the CD).

We’ve had our schedule a bit interrupted by Mark’s cancer treatments, but I’ve been steadily making my way through a stack of books to review for you. Here’s what you can look forward to in the coming days:

1. Completion of my review of War in the Bible and Terrorism in the 21st Century (Part One is here)
2. Another book attempting to deal with violence in the Bible: Walter Brueggemann’s Divine Presence amid Violence: Contextualizing the Book of Joshua
3. Jo Ann Hackett’s soon-to-be-published (by Hendrickson) A Basic Introduction to Biblical Hebrew
4. A few OT survey books, one takes a comparative approach, the other a socio-literary approach
5. Something for the Ugaritic fans

And as a special treat, I’m working on a post that explains the basics of the physics and bio-chemistry going on in Mark’s radiation and chemo treatments. Stay tuned to find out the low-down on oncology radiation and why not all chemo is equal (and what Mark’s chemo is attempting to do). We’ve just finished Day 11 of 28 of the radiation/chemo regime. Just taking things one day at a time.

There are a few other books in the queue, but the above list will hopefully be enough to entice you to keep checking back.

Add your own in the comments (or send me corrections if you see something above that is wrong)!

This is the publisher blurb:

Until recently, biblical studies and studies of the written and material culture of the ancient Near East have been fragmented, governed by experts who are confined within their individual disciplines’ methodological frameworks and patterns of thinking. The consequence has been that, at present, concepts and the terminology for examining the interaction of textual and historical complexes are lacking.

However, we can learn from the cognitives sciences. Until the end of the 1980s, neurophysiologists, psychologists, pediatricians, and linguists worked in complete isolation from one another on various aspects of the human brain. Then, beginning in the 1990s, one group began to focus on processes in the brain, thereby requiring that cell biologists, neurologists, psychiatrists, psychologists, linguists, and other relevant scientists collaborate with each other. Their investigation revealed that the brain integrates all kinds of information; if this were not the case, we would not be able to catch even a glimpse of the brain’s processing activity.

By analogy, van Wolde’s proposal for biblical scholarship is to extend its examination of single elements by studying the integrative structures that emerge out of the interconnectivity of the parts. This analysis is based on detailed studies of specific relationships among data of diverse origins, using language as the essential device that links and permits expression. This method can be called a cognitive relational approach.

Van Wolde bases her work on cognitive concepts developed by Ronald Langacker. With these concepts, biblical scholars will be able to study emergent cognitive structures that issue from biblical words and texts in interaction with historical complexes. Van Wolde presents a method of analysis that biblical scholars can follow to investigate interactions among words and texts in the Hebrew Bible, material and nonmaterial culture, and comparative textual and historical contexts. In a significant portion of the book, she then exemplifies this method of analysis by applying it to controversial concepts and passages in the Hebrew Bible (the crescent moon; the in-law family; the city gate; differentiation and separation; Genesis 1, 34; Leviticus 18, 20; Numbers 5, 35; Deuteronomy 21; and Ezekiel 18, 22, 33).

Lyrics:

A Elbereth Gilthoniel,
O Elbereth Starkindler,
silivren penna míriel
white-glittering, slants down sparkling like jewels,
o menel aglar elenath!
from the firmament the glory of the starry host!
Na-chaered palan-díriel
Having gazed far away
o galadhremmin ennorath,
from the tree-woven lands of Middle-earth,
Fanuilos, le linnathon
to thee, Everwhite, I will sing,
nef aear, sí nef aearon!
on this side of the Sea, here on this side of the Great Ocean!

Special thanks to Pat for letting me post this here!

I think these are helpful for instructors trying to make informed choices about textbooks to use for classes. There is no one “best” textbook. Rather, a teacher must consider their students, the type of class, the goals for the class, and their own teaching style and skills in selecting a textbook. The summaries are also helpful for students who are looking for supplemental reading and reference. I have tried to track down a digital copy of the ETS handout, but have not been successful yet, so I am posting a (relatively poor) scanned copy. If someone knows who has the original, I would be grateful if you brought that to my attention.

• “Assessing Recently Published Biblical Hebrew Grammars” presented by Dr. Hélène Dallaire at SBL 2006 (PDF)
• PowerPoint slides (PDF format) of Assessing Recently Published Biblical Hebrew Grammars by Dr. Hélène Dallaire
• Recently Published Biblical Hebrew Grammars: Assessing What is New on the Market (Chart by Dr. Hélène Dallaire, 2006)
• ETS 2009 Handout: A Comparison of Five First-Year Hebrew Resources (Biblical Hebrew Language & Exegesis Study Group)

There are some additional textbooks due out which I hope to review. Most notably the Hendrickson textbook, A Basic Introduction to Biblical Hebrew by Jo Ann Hackett and Fred Putnam‘s upcoming grammar to be published by Sheffield Phoenix.

You can look at each of the resources in depth at your leisure. My question today is not which one handles what challenge better, but rather, who should determine which software you use?

There is definitely a discussion going on about the pedagogical value of introducing bible software earlier in the seminary curriculum (and in particular, for the biblical language courses). The problem is how to integrate these programs into the classroom. Some seminaries seem to let the programs just filter in as students discover their merits on their own. At the other end of the spectrum are the seminaries that mandate purchase of a specific program that is then utilized (and supported) throughout the curriculum. I see value in both approaches.

First, I own a Mac. I have used Accordance for years. But until recently, I was in a very small minority. Most of the support I needed I found on the Accordance forums (also their blog and website), through social media networking, or Accordance seminars. Most of the computers around me were PCs and most of those users chose BibleWorks. Most students will become familiar with whatever program they use in seminary/university and will not want to change to another program after graduating because they are heavily invested in software and experience. So, since I was personally convinced that I wanted to use Accordance, I would have a hard time having someone tell me I could not and would have to buy another program and use that for classes.

On the other hand, as an instructor, I see the value of having everyone “on the same page.” Calvin Seminary does require their students to purchase one package (a specially tailored Logos package, if I recall correctly). Carl Bosma has developed a detailed seminar-like course that teaches students exactly (step-by-step) how to use the program. The course is part of a pre-semester orientation (the training is ongoing though). This means that the IT department and the professors all know exactly what program their students have, they can share filters, data, links, etc. with no conflict issues. They can pull material up in class and students can follow along on their own computers. Students are allowed to collaborate and share resources they develop. By the time they graduate, the idea is that they have a personal library of notes, sermons, etc. all linked in their Logos program and they know exactly how to do studies and sermon prep utilizing all their Logos text and book resources. There is a plan to have support for Mac users of Logos, but for now I think most of their Mac users run Logos in a Windows environment on their computer.

The issue, especially for students choosing seminaries, could come down to a minor decision-making fork-in-the-road along the lines of “I’m a Mac; I’m a PC.” In other words, if I really want to keep using my Mac, if I have heard that Accordance does fantastic searches and has lots of scholar-level texts, will I choose a school that is only PC and Logos-based? What about if my church has already given me a copy of BibleWorks and my mentor is very skilled in that program? Now, obviously much more important criteria will be considered (and should be) first. This is not a primary concern. But it isn’t a minor annoyance either. It’s more along the lines of deciding whether you want to live for several years with the cold weather up North vs the sunny South. Except that the decision will likely affect a student for many more years. The skills a student learns and practices in school/seminary will likely be the skills they continue to use later in the ministry. It would be very difficult to switch after becoming a competent user of one program for 3 or 4 years (not to mention the expense of switching programs or platforms).

So, what do you think? Should schools decide for students which bible software to buy? Does the benefit outweigh removing individual choice in the matter? Should all the options be made available to students so they can make an informed choice? What is your own experience?

—————————–
To be completely candid, I now run Windows 7 via Parallels 5 on my MacBook Pro (please don’t condemn me). I needed to do this to run some Windows-only software to allow me to work with colleagues on some projects. As a result, I have SESB and limited Logos resources loaded on the Windows side. I also have Vocabula and some translator software for projects I am working on. I do use the Olive Tree iPhone app, and am a beta tester for some of the original language modules (more about Olive Tree in another post). The only program I do not currently have access to is BibleWorks (however, at one point I did have a copy to demo for my students, but I left that copy of the program with the instructor who followed after me).

UPDATE: The nice folks at Bibleworks have contacted me and offered to send a copy of the program so that I can include that resource as I continue to review software and develop digital tools. Thank you Jim Barr!

• A Plea for a Broad Definition of Ancient Hebrew
• Biblical Terms for the Language of the Land of Judah